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Background: Lower respiratory infections (LRIs) remain the world's leading infectious cause of death. This analysis from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023 provides global, regional, and national estimates of LRI incidence, mortality, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), with attribution to 26 pathogens, including 11 newly modelled pathogens, across 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2023. With new data and revised modelling techniques, these estimates serve as an update and expansion to GBD 2021. Through these estimates, we also aimed to assess progress towards the 2025 Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Pneumonia and Diarrhoea (GAPPD) target for pneumonia mortality in children younger than 5 years. Methods: Mortality from LRIs, defined as physician-diagnosed pneumonia or bronchiolitis, was estimated using the Cause of Death Ensemble model with data from vital registration, verbal autopsy, surveillance, and minimally invasive tissue sampling. The Bayesian meta-regression tool DisMod-MR 2.1 was used to model overall morbidity due to LRIs. DALYs were calculated as the sum of years of life lost (YLLs) and years lived with disability (YLDs) for all locations, years, age groups, and sexes. We modelled pathogen-specific case-fatality ratios (CFRs) for each age group and location using splined binomial regression to create internally consistent estimates of incidence and mortality proportions attributable to viral, fungal, parasitic, and bacterial pathogens. Progress was assessed towards the GAPPD target of less than three deaths from pneumonia per 1000 livebirths, which is roughly equivalent to a mortality rate of less than 60 deaths per 100 000 children younger than 5 years. Findings: In 2023, LRIs were responsible for 2·50 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 2·24–2·81) deaths and 98·7 million (87·7–112) DALYs, with children younger than 5 years and adults aged 70 years and older carrying the highest burden. LRI mortality in children younger than 5 years fell by 33·4% (10·4–47·4) since 2010, with a global mortality rate of 94·8 (75·6–116·4) per 100 000 person-years in 2023. Among adults aged 70 years and older, the burden remained substantial with only marginal declines since 2010. A mortality rate of less than 60 deaths per 100 000 for children younger than 5 years was met by 129 of the 204 modelled countries in 2023. At a super-regional level, sub-Saharan Africa had an aggregate mortality rate in children younger than 5 years (hereafter referred to as under-5 mortality rate) furthest from the GAPPD target. Streptococcus pneumoniae continued to account for the largest number of LRI deaths globally (634 000 [95% UI 565 000–721 000] deaths or 25·3% [24·5–26·1] of all LRI deaths), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (271 000 [243 000–298 000] deaths or 10·9% [10·3–11·3]), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (228 000 [204 000–261 000] deaths or 9·1% [8·8–9·5]). Among pathogens newly modelled in this study, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (responsible for 177 000 [95% UI 155 000–201 000] deaths) and Aspergillus spp (responsible for 67 800 [59 900–75 900] deaths) emerged as important contributors. Altogether, the 11 newly modelled pathogens accounted for approximately 22% of LRI deaths. Interpretation: This comprehensive analysis underscores both the gains achieved through vaccination and the challenges that remain in controlling the LRI burden globally. Furthermore, it demonstrates persistent disparities in disease burden, with the highest mortality rates concentrated in countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Globally, as well as in these high-burden locations, the under-5 LRI mortality rate remains well above the GAPPD target. Progress towards this target requires equitable access to vaccines and preventive therapies—including newer interventions such as respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibodies—and health systems capable of early diagnosis and treatment. Expanding surveillance of emerging pathogens, strengthening adult immunisation programmes, and combating vaccine hesitancy are also crucial. As the global population ages, the dual challenge of sustaining gains in child survival while addressing the rising vulnerability in older adults will shape future pneumonia control strategies. Funding: Gates Foundation. © 2026 Elsevier Ltd
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq; Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Nursing, Al Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Medical-surgical Nursing, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Advanced Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Epidemiology, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-qura University, Makka, Saudi Arabia; Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom; Medicine Department, Rawalpindi Medical University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Biology, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; School of Nursing, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Mathematics and Sciences, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Department of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt; Health Research Centre, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medicine, University of Setif Algeria, Sétif, Algeria; Department of Health, University of Setif Algeria, Sétif, Algeria; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran; Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Komar University of Science and Technology, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Baxshin Hospital, Baxshin Research Center, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Community and Maternity Nursing Unit, University of Duhok, Duhok, Iraq; Department of Physiotherapy, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria; Department of Physiotherapy, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Nigeria; Department of Research, Toufik's World Medical Association, Sumy, Ukraine; Department of General Surgery and Clinical Anatomy, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Emergency Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; School of Pharmacy, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, University of Tennessee, Memphis, TN, United States; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia; Department of Community Medicine, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria; Department of Family and Community Health, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom; Department of Research and Development, Healthy Africans Platform, Ibadan, Nigeria; Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha, Egypt; Department of Anesthesiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics Department, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan; Community Health Nursing Department, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia; of Public Health, St. Luke's International University, Tokyo, Japan; Division of Population Data Science, National Cancer Center, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Practice, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, King Salman International University, Rus Sudr, Egypt; Clinical Sciences Department, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Biopharmaceutics and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department Pharmacy Practice and Pharmacotherapeutics, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Clinical Trials Unit, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Genomics and Precision Medicine Program, College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar; Department of Pharmacy, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Department of Restorative Dentistry, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Livestock Services (DLS), Government of Nepal (GoN), Lalitpur, Nepal; Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, Mysuru, India; Department of Population Health, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, United States; Department of Emergency and Critical Care Nursing, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, United States; School of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Centre for Social Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Microbiology, Ladoke Akintola University, Osogbo, Nigeria; NMC Healthcare, Independent Consultant, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, United States; Graduate Program Division, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States; Translational Research Team, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Melanoma Institute Australia, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States; Department of Family Medicine, Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria; Department of Family Medicine, Bowen University Teaching Hospital, Ogbomoso, Nigeria; Slum and Rural Health Initiative Research Academy, Slum and Rural Health Initiative, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Physiotherapy, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States; Department of Microbiology, Edo State University Uzairue, Iyamho, Nigeria; Department of Biochemistry, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria; University of Medical Sciences, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; School of Public Health, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Department of Fisheries and Marine Bioscience, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh; Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia; Department of Biotechnology, National Agricultural Research Institute, Beni Mellal, Morocco, Morocco; Apollo Institute Of Medical Sciences & Research Chittoor, Apollo Hospital, Chittoor, India; Department of Biology, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, Indonesia; Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy; Department of Community Medicine, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Public Health, Public Health Institute, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Public Health, Wachemo University, Hossana, Ethiopia; MM College of Pharmacy, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Ambala, India; Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Trivedi School of Biosciences, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India; Department of Public Health Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada; Rajaie Trauma Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; School of Public Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Physical Therapy, University of Nizwa, Birkat Al Mawz, Oman; College of Medicine, Shaqra University, Shaqra, Saudi Arabia; School of Medicine and Psychology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia; Health Research Institute, University of Canberra, Canberra, NSW, Australia; Biological Production Unit National Institute of Health Islamabad Pakistan, National Institute of Health, Islamabad, Pakistan; World Health Organization, World Health Organisation, Islamabad, Pakistan; College of Veterinary Sciences, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, Pakistan, Peshawar, Pakistan; Department of Health Informatics, Qassim University, Buraidha, Saudi Arabia; School of Nursing, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia; Department of Pharmacy Practice, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan; Department of Health and Biological Sciences, Abasyn University, Peshawar, Pakistan; Department of Natural Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon; School of Public Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Department of Community Health Sciences, Sohail University, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran; Department of Epidemiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Tissue Engineering and Applied Cell Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmacy Practice, Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan; Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health (IDGPH), University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States; Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan; Pan-African One Health Institute (PAOHI), Kigali, Rwanda; Medical Laboratory Science Department, University of Human Development, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan; College of Nursing, Majmaah University, Al Majmaah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Duhok, Duhok, Iraq; Department of Medicine, Rawalpindi Medical University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Assistance Medical Sciences, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medicine, Fatima Memorial Hospital College of Medicine and Dentistry, Lahore, Pakistan; Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States; Center for International Health, Education and Biosecurity, Center for International Health Education, and Biosecurity, Abuja, Nigeria; University of Maryland, Baltimore, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Baltimore, MD, United States; Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Physiology, Ladoke Akintola University, Ogbomoso, Nigeria; University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece; Department of Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, University General Hospital of Patras, Patras, Greece; Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Baylor Scott & White Health, Frisco, TX, United States; VentrureBlick; Department of Communicable Diseases, Ministry of Health, Muscat, Oman; Middle East, Eurasia, and Africa Influenza Stakeholders Network, Muscat, Oman; Division of Public Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; School of Public Health, University of Texas, Houston, TX, United States; The University of Jordan School of Medicine, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Sham Private University, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic; Department of Research and Development, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; Clinical Epidemiology Center, US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), St. Louis, MO, United States; Murdoch Business School, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia; Preventive Dentistry Department, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia; Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Health Information Management and Technology, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; School of Public Health and Interdisciplinary studies, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand; Deputyship of Population Health, Ministry of Health, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Saudi Longevity Society, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Al-Ayen Iraqi University, Thi-Qar, Iraq; Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, University of Science and Technology, Sana'a, Yemen; Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Department of Community and Mental Health, Al al-Bayt University, Mafraq, Jordan; Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan; Translational and Precision Medicine Research, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States; College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; School of Pharmacy, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Midwifery, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States; Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt; Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China; College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Biotechnology, University of Malakand, Chakdara, Pakistan; College of Dental Medicine, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Medical Sciences (NUMS), Rawalpindi, Pakistan; School of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacy, Mohammed Al-Mana College for Medical Sciences, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medical Rehabilitation (Physiotherapy), University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria; Nethersole School of Nursing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; School of Cyberspace Security, Hainan University, Haikou, China; Center for Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Swat, Swat, Pakistan; The School of Medicine, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Federation University Australia, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Immunology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; The Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Physics, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany; Department of Clinical and Community Pharmacy, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, National University of Malaysia, Bandar Tun Razak, Malaysia; Department of Medical Laboratories, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; Independent Consultant, Amman, Jordan; Department of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Parasitology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Parasitology, Sana'a University, Sana'a, Yemen; Ophthalmology Department, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States; Department of Clinical Nursing, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; College of Health Sciences, University of Duhok, Duhok, Iraq; Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Physical Therapy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Respiratory Care, Prince Sultan Military College of Health Sciences, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Surgical Research Section, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Department of Community Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Nursing, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, United States; Macro-Fiscal Policy Department, Ministry of Finance, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Department of Emergency Medicine, Sana'a University, Sanaa, Yemen; Pediatric Emergency Medicine Department, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pathology, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Medical and Diagnostic Research Center, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Basic Sciences, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan; Higher College of Technology, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Faculty of Health Sciences, Equator University of Science and Technology, Masaka, Uganda, Uganda; Research, Policy, and Training Directorate, Jordan Center for Disease Control, Amman, Jordan; Applied Science Research Center, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan; Department of Specialty Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States; Department of Respiratory Therapy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Respiratory Therapy Unit, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Research Group in Health Economics, Universidad de Cartagena (University of Cartagena), Cartagena, Colombia; Research Group in Hospital Management and Health Policies, Universidad de la Costa (University of the Coast), Barranquilla, Colombia; Department of Economic Sciences, Universidad de la Costa, Barranquilla, Colombia; National Health Observatory, National Institute of Health, Bogota, Colombia; Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Fakeeh College for Medical Sciences, Fakeeh College for Medical Sciences, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; College of Medical Sciences, Azal University for Human Development, Sana'a, Yemen; Department of Pediatrics, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sana'a University, Sana'a, Yemen; Laboratory Medicine Department, Al-Baha University, Al-Aqiq, Saudi Arabia; Maternal and Child Health Division (MCHD), International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Biomedical Engineering, German Jordanian University, Amman, Jordan; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of London, London, United Kingdom; Food and Beverages Safety Research Center, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran; Department of Public Health, Salale University, Fitche, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China; Department of Health and Management Sciences, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran; Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Sokoto, Nigeria; School of Pharmacy, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana; Department of Food Safety and Hygiene, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; Spiritual Health Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman; Department of Health and Wellbeing, African Population and Health Research Center, Nairobi, Kenya; Department of Medicine, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria; Department of Internal Medicine, Jos University Teaching Hospital, Jos, Nigeria; Center for Biomedical Image Computing & Analytics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Department of Public Health, Samara University, Samara, Ethiopia; Faculty of Pharmacy, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Neurology Department, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India; Ashok & Rita Patel Institute Of Physiotherapy, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Petlad, India; Department of Microbiology, Lagos State University, Ojo, Nigeria; Department of Public Health, The Apollo University, Chittoor, India; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; Department of Microbiology, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; Regenerative Medicine, Organ Procurement and Transplantation Multi-disciplinary Center, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; College of Medicine, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Rural Health Research Institute, Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Public Health, Ateneo De Manila University, Pasig City, Philippines; Inter-Agency Committee on Environmental Health, Department of Health Philippines, Manila, Philippines; Internal Medicine Directorate, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana; Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Biotechnology, Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, India; University College of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Institute for Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Periodontics, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Nazarbayev University, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Pharmacy Practice, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; School of Veterinary Medicine, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; College of Applied Medical Science, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Pioneer Journal of Biostatistics and Medical Research (PJBMR), Pakistan, Pakistan; School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia; Nursing Department, Institute of Technology and Health Science RS dr Soepraoen, Malang, Indonesia; Faculty of Health Science, Institute of Technology and Health Science RS dr Soepraoen, Malang, Indonesia; Monash Addiction Research Center, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Atchabar Scientific Research Institute, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Public Health, Istanbul Medipol University, Istanbul, Turkey; Department of Immunology, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth Pune (Deemed to be University), Pune, India; Center for Clinical Global Health Education, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Management Policy and Community Health, University of Texas, Houston, TX, United States; College of Medicine, University of Basrah, Basrah, Iraq; Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Clinic of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, San Paolo Hospital, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Milan, Italy; Northumbria HealthCare NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Department of Computer Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, TX, United States; Maternal and Child Health Directorate, Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Medicinal Chemistry Unit, Kwara State University, Ilorin, Malete, Nigeria; Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pinang, Malaysia; Department of Health Information Management, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Laboratory Sciences Department, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran; Department of Medical-Surgical Nursing, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran; Department of Anesthesia, Cihan University Sulaimaniya, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Department of Basic Sciences, University of Sulaimani, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Rheumatology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Health Information Management, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Ondo, Nigeria; Department of Population Medicine, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; School of Public Health, Washington University in St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO, United States; Directorate of Quality Assurance, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; Department of Clinical Pathology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Microbiology Department, Horus University Egypt, Damietta, Egypt; Taleghani Anesthesiologist, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Pediatric Dentistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; College of Optometry, Pacific University, Forest Grove, OR, United States; International Medical School, Management and Science University, Alam, Malaysia; Department of Medical Informatics, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Division of Biological Sciences, Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology, Chennai, India; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Global Health Research, IMPACT Global Consulting, New Delhi, India; Foundation for Reproductive Health Services India, New Delhi, India; Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia; University Institute of Food Science and Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Health Information Management, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; College of Medicine, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia; Barcelona Institute for Global Health, ISGlobal Instituto de Salud Global de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Faculty of Nursing, King Khalid University, Mahyil Asir, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medical Education, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, United States; School of Public Health, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, United States; IT Department, Coforge, Georgia, GA, United States; Cancer Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Pastor Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Social and Administrative pharmacy, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; College of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; School of Public Health, Dr. D. Y. Patil University, Mumbai, India; Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Microbiology, Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Qods, Iran; Department of Nursing, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa; Community Medicine, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Madurai, India; Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, Krishna Vishwa Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University), Karad, India; School of the Environment, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States; School of Health Policy and Management, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Infectious Disease Research Department, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Sokoto, Nigeria; Department of Physiotherapy and Paramedicine, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, United Kingdom; BRAC James P Grant School of Public Health, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Health Systems Strengthening, Global Health Advocacy Incubator, Washington, DS, United States; Centre for Policy Research and Data Analytics in Health and Environment, All India Institute for Medical Sciences, Gorakhpur, India; School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Faculty of Medicine, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Sintra, Portugal; Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health (CIIS), Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Lisbon, Portugal; Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University, Gross Pointe Woods, MI, United States; Global Health Neurology Lab, NSW Brain Clot Bank, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Division of Cerebrovascular Medicine and Neurology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Japan; Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; School of Sport & Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health Research, Bengal Rural Welfare Service (BRWS), Kolkata, India; Laboratory of Translational Medicine and Nanotherapeutics, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India; Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, India; Medical Laboratory Sciences, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Strep A & ARF Therapeutics Team, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Pharmacology, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Deoghar, India; Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Science and Technology Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut, Malaysia; Health Biotechnology Directorate at Bio and Emerging Technology Institute, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Physical Education and Health, Universidad de la República, Rivera, Uruguay; Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ramanathapuram, India; Department of Health Promotion and Behavioural Science, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Internal Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Department of Internal Medicine, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran; Disease Surveillance Department, Ghana Health Service, Ho, Ghana; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Facultad de Salud (Faculty of Health), Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali, Colombia; Department of Medicine, University Ferhat Abbas of Setif, Setif, Algeria; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University Hospital Saadna Abdenour, Setif, Algeria; Department of Earth, Environment, and Equity, Howard University, Washington, DC, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; College of Health Sciences, VinUniversity, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Research Advancement Consortium in Health, Hanoi, Viet Nam; School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Craiova, Romania; Interdisciplinary Research Center for Health Science, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy; Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Public Health Department, National University of Colombia, Bogota, Colombia; Epidemiology and Public Health Evaluation Group, National University of Colombia, Bogota, Colombia; Department of Medical, Surgical, and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy; Public Health Unit, University Health Agency Giuliano-Isontina (ASUGI), Trieste, Italy; College of Public Health, Medical, and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia; Department of Public Health, University of Mataram, Mataram, Indonesia; Integrated Operative Unit of Clinical Pathology, Sant'Antonio Abate Hospital, Erice, Italy; Health Services and Epidemiological Observatory Department, Regional Health Authority, Palermo, Sicilian Region, Italy; Infection and Global Health Research, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom; Regional Infectious Diseases Unit, NHS National Services Scotland, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Non-communicable Diseases Division, National Institute of Epidemiology, Chennai, India; Department of Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India; Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University, Chuncheon, South Korea; State Disease Investigation Laboratory, Animal Resources Development Department, Agartala, India; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Semey Medical University (SMU), Semey, Kazakhstan; Department of Community Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Sawangi, India; Department of Epidemiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston) School of Public Health, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Biology, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health, Indian Institute of Public Health, Hyderabad, India; Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India; Faculty of Humanities and Health Sciences, Curtin University, Miri, Malaysia; Clinical Research Center, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China; Science and Technology Department, Northern Jiangsu People's Hospital, Yangzhou, China; School of Public Health, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China; Department of Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Division of Infectious Diseases, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States; Nutrition Research Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Clinical Oncology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, China; Department of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bilaspur, India; Department of Biosciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Christian Medical College and Hospital (CMC), Vellore, India; The Interdisciplinary Research Group on Biomedicine and Health, VNU International School (VNUIS), Hanoi, Viet Nam; Faculty of Applied Sciences, VNU International School (VNUIS), Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Molecular Parasitology and Tropical Diseases, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Paediatric Surgery, Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, Nigeria; Department of Urology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Department of AndroUrology, AndroUrology Centre, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Department of Health Behavior, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States; School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; General Administration, University of Milan Bicocca, Monza, Italy; Department of Respiratory Medicine and Allergology, Nicolae Testemitanu State University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Chisinau, Moldova; Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy; Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Health, Northern Territory Government, Darwin, WA, Australia; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Community Medicine, Employees' State Insurance Model Hospital, Chennai, India; Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States; Ga East Municipal Hospital, Ghana Health Service, Accra, Ghana; Department of Public Health, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia; Heart Failure Research Center, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Center of Excellence in Precision Medicine and Digital Health, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Division of Women and Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Biochemistry, Ministry of Health and Welfare, New Delhi, India; Atchabarov Scientific-Research Institute of Fundamental and Applied Medicine, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Brookdale University Hospital Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY, United States; Infectieziekten in de Eerste Lijn Programme, Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research, Utrecht, Netherlands; School of Medicine, University of Colima, Colima, Mexico; Department of Research, State Cancerology Institute of Colima, IMSS‑BIENESTAR, Colima, Mexico; Department of Physiology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Research and Training Directorate, Eka Kotebe General Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Clinic of Lung diseases and Tuberculosis, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States; College of Health Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chennai, India; JSS Medical College Department of Biochemistry, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Health Education and Research, Mysuru, India; Department of Pharmacy, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Pharmacology Division, Center for Life Sciences Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Research and Development Cell, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune (Deemed to be University), Pune, India; Research Department, Planetary Health Research Centre, Kathmandu, Nepal; Institute of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Research Department, Nepal Health Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal; Institute of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Population Interventions Unit, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Clinical Department of Medical, Surgical, and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy; Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy; Department of Life Science and Public Health, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Catholic University of the Sacred Heart), Rome, Italy; Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China; Institute of Health Economics and Technology, Institute of Health Economics and Technology, Hanoi, Viet Nam; International Institute for Training and Research (INSTAR), Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Medicine, Can Tho University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Can Tho, Viet Nam; Department of Social Medicine and Health Care Organisation, Medical University of Varna, Varna, Bulgaria; Research Center for Nutritional Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Independent Consultant, Bridgewater, NJ, United States; Heart Institute, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Clínica Pró Coração, São Paulo, Brazil; Faculty of Science and Humanities, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, India; Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rajkot, India; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States; Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Michael and Cecilia Ibru University, Delta State, Nigeria; Environmental and Occupational Health Research Center, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran; Higher School of Technology, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, Morocco; School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Malaysia; Advanced Nursing Department, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, Indonesia; La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Iran University of Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Private Orthodontist, Ahvaz, Iran; Faculty of Science and Health, University of Portsmouth, Hampshire, United Kingdom; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon; Almoosa College of Health Sciences, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia; Biomedical Informatics and Medical Statistics Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; Clinical Pathology Department, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Perelman's School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Pharmacology and Therapeutic Department, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States; Institute of Public Health, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; Department of Healthcare Policy and Financing, Global Health Focus, Khartoum, Sudan; National Institute of Public Health Research, Ministry of Health, Nouakchott, Mauritania; Pediatric Dentistry and Dental Public Health Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; Department of Clinical and Chemical Pathology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhur, Egypt; Australian Center for Precision Health, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Wassa Amenfi East Municipal Health Directorate, Ghana Health Service, Wassa Akropong, Ghana; Department of Bacteriology and Virology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Cancer Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Research Centre for Healthcare and Community, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom; of the Scientific and Technological Park, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Public Health Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States; Pediatric Infectious Disease Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; College of Medicine, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Jouf University, Aljouf, Sakaka 72388, Saudi Arabia; Department of Radiography and Imaging Technology, Green International University, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa; Animal Production and Health Division (EMPRES), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy; Charité University Berlin, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany; School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia; University Institute of Radiological Sciences and Medical Imaging Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Department of Pharmacy, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Center for Public Health Research, University of Milan Bicocca, Monza, Italy; Laboratory of Public Health, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy; Department of Social Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus; Department of Nursing, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Institute of Health Sciences, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia; Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Institute of Public Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Statistics, Oregon Health and Science University, Corvallis, OR, United States; Health Services Management Training Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary; Department of Applied Social Sciences, Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania, Târgu-Mureş, Romania; Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Institute of Applied Health Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary; Laboratory Sciences Division, National Institute of Epidemiology, Chennai, India; Department of Pharmacology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Department of Biostatistics, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; Key Lab of Environment and Health, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; Department of Health Policy and Administration, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Medicine, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain; Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Rio Hortega, Valladolid, Spain; Infectious Diseases Unit, University of Verona, Verona, Italy; Department of Ophthalmology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Centre for Pharmacology, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Noida, India; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia; College of Medicine and Public Health, Aksum University, Aksum, Ethiopia; College of Medicine and Health Science, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Pfizer Vaccines, Collegeville, PA, United States; Agency of Preventive Medicine, Paris, France; Department of Public Health, Menelik II Medical and Health Science College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Health Systems Management and Health Economics, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; College of Medicine and Health Science, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Infectious Disease Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Pediatric Department, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Department of Laboratory Sciences, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran; Research Committee of Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, Iran; Faculty of Pharmacy, Amman Arab University, Amman, Jordan; Neurology Department of Imam Khomeini Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Alborzi Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Tropical Health Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; Family and Community Medicine Department, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia; Country Office, World Health Organization (WHO), Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry (DBSC), University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman; Department of Zoology, KKS Women's College, Balasore, India; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Ospedale SS Annunziata Savigliano, Savigliano, Italy; Department of Cardiac Surgery, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; Department of Biostatistics, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Quantitative Department, Non-Communicable Diseases Research Center (NCDRC), Tehran, Iran; Department of Genetics, Sana Institute of Higher Education, Sari, Iran; Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Senior Department of Tuberculosis, The Eighth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China; Midwifery Department, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; Department of Health Informatics, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Medical Directorate, Local Health Authority of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy; Department of Clinical Science, University of Sulaimani, Sulaimani, Iraq; School of Global Health and Bioethics, Euclid University, Banjul, Gambia; Department of Community Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri Lanka; Department of Nephrology, Max Super Speciality Hospital, New Delhi, India; Non-communicable Diseases Division (NCD), Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India; Department of Pharmacology, Chitkara University, Rajpura, India; Centre of Medical and Bio-allied Health Sciences Research, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Department of Anaesthesia, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, India; Department of Toxicology, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi, India; Department of Microbiology, Rama Medical College Hospital and Research Centre, Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur, India; School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia; Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences (FHML), Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Doctoral Program in Biomedical Gerontology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Research Unit in Epidemiology Clinic, Mexican Institute of Social Security, Colima, Mexico; Department of Medical Microbiology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Climate Change and Health Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq; National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia; Epidemiology Programme, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Department of Liver Tumor, Cancer Center, Cho Ray Hospital, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Liver Transplant Unit, Cho Ray Hospital, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Department of Nursing and Midwifery, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany; Department of Public Health, Charité Institute of Public Health, Berlin, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, American University of Madaba, Amman, Jordan; Oral & Maxillofacial Rehabilitation Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Fixed Prosthodontics, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Medical and Technical Information Technology, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Edirne Public Health Center, Edirne Provincial Health Directorate, Edirne, Turkey; Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey; Department of Critical Care and Emergency Nursing, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; Department of Health and Education, Torrens University Australia, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Basic and Applied Sciences, A' Sharqiyah University, Ibra, Oman; Department of Chemistry, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Medical Research Unit, Universitas Syiah Kuala (Syiah Kuala University), Banda Aceh, Indonesia; Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Copenhagen University Hospital, North Zealand, University of Copenhagen, Hillerød, Denmark; Department of Medical Imaging, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Advanced Nursing, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, Indonesia; School of Nursing and Midwivery, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia; Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tejgaon College, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Ophthalmology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Interventions and Implementation Research Department, International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea; Institute of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; institute of radiology and radiological sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Research Center for Traditional Medicine and History of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Biotechnology, Lahore University of Biological and Applied Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India; Department of Neurology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan; Department of Community Medicine, Federal University Teaching Hospital, Lafia, Nigeria; Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, Federal University of Lafia, Lafia, Nigeria; Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; Health School and Data Science, Amoud University, Borama, Somalia; Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (TIPS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Paediatrics, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Paediatric Professorial Unit, Lady Ridgeway Hospital for Children, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacy Administration and Clinical Pharmacy, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China; Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada; Community-Oriented Nursing Midwifery Research Center, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Shahrekord, Iran; Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States; College of Nursing, Qassim University, El-Molida, Saudi Arabia; Department of Statistics and Econometrics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania; Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania; Department of Microbiology, Taiz University, Taiz, Yemen; School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China; of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Department of Pulmonary and Infectious Diseases, University of Copenhagen, Hillerød, Denmark; Department of Physics, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh; Department of Statistics, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh; School of Engineering and Technology, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Department of AI, School of Computer Science and Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India; Department of Internal Medicine, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Legal Medicine and Bioethics, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Clinical Legal Medicine, National Institute of Legal Medicine Mina Minovici, Bucharest, Romania; Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Advanced Institute of Convergence Knowledge Informatics, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Nephrology and Urology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Faculty of Health and Science, Koya University, Erbil, Iraq; Clinical Governance and Quality Improvement Head, Salale University, Gerba Guracha, Ethiopia; Department of Physiology, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Zakho, Zakho, Iraq; Arthur Riggs Diabetes & Metabolism Research Institute, Cancer Prevention and Research Institute, Duarte, CA, United States; Department of Health Promotion and Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Science and Technology Park, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Physiotherapy Department, Tishk International University, Erbil, Iraq; Department of Biology, University of Zakho, Zakho, Iraq; Collaborative Alliance Research and Education (CARE) Programme, Episcope Research Service, Scotland, Aberdeen, United Kingdom; Division of Infectious Diseases, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; West Africa RCC, Africa Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Nigeria; Department of Community Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, Kragujevac, Serbia; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia; Institute of Health Research, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Ahmad Dahlan, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; Department of Microbiology, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria; Department of Biotechnology, Sharda University, Greater Noida, India; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia; School of Pharmacy, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Eastern University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Journal of Biosciences and Public Health (JBPH), 4-Green Research Society, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Nutrition, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States; University of Duhok, University of Dhaka, Duhok, Iraq; Clinical Laboratory Department, Tobruk University, Tobruk, Libya; Department of Blood Transmitted Diseases, National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), Tobruk, Libya; Department of Clinical Pharmacy & Pharmacy Practice, Asian Institute of Medicine, Science and Technology, Bedong, Malaysia; Malaysian Academy of Pharmacy, Puchong, Malaysia; Department of Urology, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Health Services Research, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan; Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Department of Global Health, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Nursing, Aksum University, Aksum, Ethiopia; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Department of Nursing, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain; Government Hospitals, Manama, Bahrain; Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India; UNESCO-TWAS Section of Economic & Social Sciences, Humanities & Arts, The World Academy of Sciences UNESCO-TWAS, Trieste, Italy; Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, China; Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States; Sina Trauma and Surgery Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States; Department of Health Informatics, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Primary Care Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre, Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, India; Department of Neurosciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Institute for Neurosciences, St. Luke's Medical Center, Bonifacio Global City, Philippines; Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Royan Institute, Tehran, Iran; Department of Parasitology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; parasitology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Invasive Fungi Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Department of Medical Mycology, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Department of Pharmacology, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Biochemistry, Government Medical College, Mysuru, India; Department of Oral Medicine and Periodontology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka; Department of Oral Medicine and Periodontology, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Centre for Evidence Synthesis and Implementation Research, Cephas Health Research Initiative, Inc, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Dermatology, Yonsei University, Wonju, South Korea; Institute of Evidence Based Medicine, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, Republic of Korea, Yonsei University, Wonju, South Korea; Department of Biomedical Informatics, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Department of Mathematics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Microbiology
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