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Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading global cause of death from a single infectious agent. Recent reductions in global health funding have threatened TB control, making comprehensive assessment of TB, HIV-related TB, and drug-resistant TB burdens before these disruptions essential for shaping effective responses. The WHO End TB Strategy sets targets of a 95% reduction in TB deaths and a 90% reduction in TB incidence between 2015 and 2035. Using results from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023, this study aims to assess the burden of TB and multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) across 204 countries and territories, and to evaluate progress towards the WHO End TB incidence and mortality targets. Methods: We quantified TB mortality using the Cause of Death Ensemble modelling platform with global vital registration, surveillance, verbal autopsy, and minimally invasive tissue sampling data. For TB morbidity estimation, we simultaneously modelled incidence, prevalence, and mortality by age and sex using DisMod-MR 2.1. A population attributable fraction (PAF) approach was applied to stratify morbidity and mortality estimates by HIV and drug-resistance status. We also calculated disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) as the sum of years of life lost and years lived with disability. For the risk factor analysis, a comparative risk assessment framework was used and PAFs were derived for alcohol use, smoking, and high fasting plasma glucose to determine the proportion of TB burden associated with these risk factors. Findings: In 2023, there were an estimated 9·11 million (95% uncertainty interval 8·04–10·3) incident cases of all-form TB, 1·22 million (0·98–1·49) deaths, and 54·6 million (43·8–65·5) DALYs globally. HIV-related TB comprised 781 000 (690 000–879 000) incident cases and 210 000 (142 000–279 000) deaths, contributing 11·0 million (7·56–14·3) DALYs. MDR-TB accounted for 466 000 (198 000–1 080 000) incident cases, 102 000 (31 700–238 000) deaths, and 3·96 million (1·31–9·01) DALYs. From 2015 to 2023, global all-form TB incidence rates declined by 19·2% (17·8–20·5) and deaths declined by 22·6% (4·7–35·7); declines were larger for drug-susceptible TB than for MDR-TB. Sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia had the highest mortality burdens in 2023; reductions in all-form TB incidence and mortality were uneven between 2000 and 2023, with limited progress in both measures in Latin America and the Caribbean. Removing smoking, alcohol use, and high fasting plasma glucose would reduce global TB deaths to 768 000 (592 000–970 000) and DALYs to 34·9 million (27·8–43·8) in 2023; MDR-TB deaths would decrease to 77 200 (23 400–183 000) and DALYs to 3·12 million (1·03–7·29). Interpretation: Global progress towards WHO End TB targets is disparate and fragile. Although many regions achieved meaningful gains, others have stagnated in recent years. The complexity of TB prevention is amplified by divergent MDR-TB trends, the persistent burden of HIV, and growing exposure to modifiable risk factors. Recent volatility in global health financing threatens to further destabilise this vulnerable epidemiological landscape; concerted action is urgently needed to temper disruptions and preserve progress. Funding: Gates Foundation. © 2026 Elsevier Ltd
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Division or Respiratory & Critical Care Medicine, Alexandra Hospital, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Medicine, Singapore, Singapore; Center for Biostatistics, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Henry M Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Medicine, Rawalpindi Medical University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Cleveland Clinic Children's, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States; OH, United States; School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, United Kingdom; Department of Medical Rehabilitation, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria; University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Epidemiology, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; Department of Biology, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt; Health Research Center, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Institute of Health, Jimma University, Dambi Dollo, Ethiopia; School of Medicine, St. George's University, St. George's, Grenada; Faculty of Medicine, Capital (Helwan) University Hospitals, Cairo, Egypt; Egypt; Department of Medicine, University of Setif Algeria, Sétif, Algeria; Department of Health, University of Setif Algeria, Sétif, Algeria; School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; Department of Faculity of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran; Komar University of Science and Technology, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Baxshin Hospital, Baxshin Research Center, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Community and Maternity Nursing Unit, University of Duhok, Duhok, Iraq; Department of Microbiology, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq; Department of Parasitology, Sana'a University, Sana'A, Yemen; Tropical Disease Research Center, University of Science and Technology (USTY), Sana'A, Yemen; Department of Physiotherapy, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria; Department of Physiotherapy, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Nigeria; Department of Medical Microbiology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia; Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Duhok, Duhok, Iraq; Department of Biology, Salahaddin-Erbil University, Erbil, Iraq; School of Nursing, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; School of Pharmacy, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Immunology, Tulane University, Covington, LA, United States; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia; Shortanbayev General Immunology Department, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Community Medicine, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria; Department of Family and Community Health, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Basic Science Department, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Clinic for Pediatric Immunology and Rheumatology, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Department of Research and Development, Healthy Africans Platform, Ibadan, Nigeria; Zoology Department, Benha University, Benha, Egypt; Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto, Nigeria; Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Lagos, Nigeria; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, King Salman International University, Rus Sudr, Egypt; Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics Department, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan; Clinical Sciences Department, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Biopharmaceutics and Clinical Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; School of Pharmacy, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, Jordan; Germany; Department of Nursing, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Pharmacy Practice and Pharmacotherapeutics, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Clinical Trials Unit, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar; Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan; Faculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, Jordan; Department of Restorative Dentistry, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Livestock Services (DLS), Government of Nepal (GoN), Lalitpur, Nepal; Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, Mysuru, India; Department of Global Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Human Anatomy, Federal University Dutse, Dutse, Nigeria; Department of Anatomy, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria; Department of Nursing Science, Modibbo Adama University, Yola, Nigeria; Public & Environmental Education and Health Service Directorate Office, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; School of Medicine, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Centre for Social Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Microbiology, Ladoke Akintola University, Osogbo, Nigeria; NMC Healthcare, Independent Consultant, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Pediatrics, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; School of Public Health, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa; Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria; Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, United States; Graduate Program Division, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States; Center for Cardiovascular Risk Research, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, United States; Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Cephas Health Research Initiative Inc., Ilesa, Nigeria; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States; Department of Chemical Pathology, University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria; Centre for Health Systems Support and Development, University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria; Department of Family Medicine, Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria; Department of Family Medicine, Bowen University Teaching Hospital, Ogbomoso, Nigeria; Department of Community Medicine and Primary Care, Federal Medical Center Abeokuta, Abeokuta, Nigeria; Department of HIV and Infectious Diseases, Jhpiego, Abuja, Nigeria; Department of Adolescent Research and Care, Adolescent Friendly Research Initiative and Care, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria; Department of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States; Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Microbiology, Edo State University Uzairue, Iyamho, Nigeria; Department of Biochemistry, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria; Department of Fisheries and Marine Bioscience, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore, Bangladesh; Research School of Population Health, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia; Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences & Research Chittoor, Apollo Hospital, Chittoor, India; College of Health Sciences, Woldia University, Woldia, Ethiopia; Department of Anesthesia, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Biology, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Health Administration and Education, University of Education Winneba, Winneba, Ghana; School of Arts and Social Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Bunbury, WA, Australia; Technical Services Directorate, MSI Nigeria Reproductive Choices, Abuja, Nigeria; School of Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Life Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Community Medicine, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Public Health, Public Health Institute, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Public Health, Wachemo University, Hossana, Ethiopia; Vadu Rural Health Program, KEM Hospital Research Centre, Pune, India; MM College of Pharmacy, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Ambala, India; University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, University of Texas, San Antonio, TX, United States; Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Public Health, Wachemo University, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Department of Public Health Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada; Department of Human Nutrition & Dietetics, National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan; Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, United Kingdom; Department of Physical Therapy, University of Nizwa, Birkat Al Mawz, Oman; Gomal Medical College, Khyber Medical University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; Physiotherapy Department, Murtala Muhammad Specialist Hospital Kano, Kano, Nigeria; College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia; Department of Health Informatics, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; University College, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Center of Excellence in Precision Medicine and Digital Health, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia; Department of Pharmacy, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Biosciences, University of Hail, Hail City, Saudi Arabia; Department of Health and Biological Sciences, Abasyn University, Peshawar, Pakistan; Department of Natural Sciences, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon; School of Public Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Department of Community Health Sciences, Sohail University, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacy Practice, Riphah Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Islamabad, Pakistan; Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health (IDGPH), University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States; Institute of Endemic Diseases, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan; Pan-African One Health Institute (PAOHI), Kigali, Rwanda; School of Medicine and Surgery, Amoud University, Borama, Somalia; Somalia; College of Nursing, Majmaah University, Al Majmaah, Saudi Arabia; Mansoura University Hospitals, Mansoura University Hospital, Mansoura, Egypt; Department of Medical Microbiology, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia; Department of Assistance Medical Sciences, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medicine, Fatima Memorial Hospital College of Medicine and Dentistry, Lahore, Pakistan; Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States; Department of Radiology, I-ELCAP Program, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, St. Paul's Hospital Millennium Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Microbial, Cellular, and Molecular Biology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Medicine, Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Emory University School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States; University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Medicine, Gujranwala Medical College, Gujranwala, Pakistan; University of Warwick, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, Greece; Department of Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, University General Hospital of Patras, Patras, Greece; Department of Medecins Sans Frontieres - Holland (Emergency Desk), Omdurman, Sudan; Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Baylor Scott & White Health, Frisco, TX, United States; VentrureBlick; College of Medicine, College of Medicine -Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Department of Communicable Diseases, Ministry of Health, Muscat, Oman; Middle East, Eurasia, and Africa Influenza Stakeholders Network, Muscat, Oman; Division of Public Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; Department of Pharmacy and Therapeutics, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; College of Nursing, Sulaiman AlRajhi University, Albukayriyah, Saudi Arabia; College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman; Department of Adult Health and Critical Care, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman; School of Public Health, University of Texas, Houston, TX, United States; College of Engineering and Technology, College of Engineering and Technology, Egaila, Kuwait; Murdoch Business School, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia; Preventive Dentistry Department, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health, Prairie View A&M University, Prairie View, TX, United States; Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Pediatric Surgery, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Al-Ayen Iraqi University, Thi-Qar, Iraq; Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, University of Science and Technology, Sana'A, Yemen; Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Ambulance Department, Abu Dhabi Civil Defence Authority, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Community and Mental Health, Al al-Bayt University, Mafraq, Jordan; Faculty of Medicine, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Physics, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey; Respiratory Therapy Program, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia; Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Geospatial and Tuberculosis Research Team, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States; Department of Public Health, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Bacteriology, Immunology, and Mycology, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt; Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Jeddah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Clinical Technology Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Mecca, Saudi Arabia; Department of Community Medicine, Fatima Jinnah Women University/Shifa Tameer-e-Milat, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Social and Cultural Anthropology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Department of Statistics and Operations Research, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India; College of Dental Medicine, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Medical Sciences (NUMS), Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacy, Mohammed Al-Mana College for Medical Sciences, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Physiotherapy, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medical Rehabilitation (Physiotherapy), University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria; Nethersole School of Nursing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; Center for Biotechnology and Microbiology, University of Swat, Swat, Pakistan; Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Anbar, Ramadi, Iraq; The School of Medicine, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Federation University Australia, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; The Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Medical Laboratory, Department of Medical Laboratory, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia; Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Clinical and Community Pharmacy, An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine; Department of Pharmacy Practice, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Family and Community Medicine Department, Qassim University, Al Qassim, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, National University of Malaysia, Bandar Tun Razak, Malaysia; Faculty of Medicine, The Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan; Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, London, United Kingdom; Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Medical Laboratories, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia; Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Anatomy, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Independent Consultant, Amman, Jordan; Department of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Parasitology, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; College of Nursing, Riyadh Elm university, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Clinical Nursing, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Nursing Faculty, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Clinical Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; American University of the Middle East, Egaila, Kuwait; Surgical Research Section, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Sana'a University, Sanaa, Yemen; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Malaysia; Department of Pathology, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Medical and Diagnostic Research Center& Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Irbid, Jordan; Health Science Division, Higher Collage of Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Health Sciences, Equator University of Science and Technology, Masaka, Uganda; Department of Specialty Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States; University of Gondar, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Respiratory Therapy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Respiratory Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Allied Medical Science, Al-Balqa Applied University, Karak, Jordan; Research Group in Health Economics, Universidad de Cartagena (University of Cartagena), Cartagena, Colombia; Research Group in Hospital Management and Health Policies, Universidad de la Costa (University of the Coast), Barranquilla, Colombia; Department of Health Sciences, Universidad de la Costa, Barranquilla, Colombia; Department of Health Technology Assessment, Alzak, Cartagena, Colombia; Fakeeh College for Medical Sciences, Fakeeh College for Medical Sciences, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; College of Medical Sciences, Azal University for Human Development, Sana'A, Yemen; Department of Cardiologic Intensive Care, University Hospital Munich, Munich, Germany; Research Department, Nepal Health Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal; Clinical Sciences - Orthopaedic, University of Science Malaysia, Kota Baharu, Malaysia; Kasr Alainy Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Bio-Medical Research Department, Armed Forces College of Medicine, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Health and Management Sciences, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran; Department of Food Safety and Hygiene, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; Department of Medicine, University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria; Department of Internal Medicine, Jos University Teaching Hospital, Jos, Nigeria; Department of Internal Medicine, Soddo Christian Hospital, Soddo, Ethiopia; Clinical Team, Srotas Health Limited, Holywood, United Kingdom; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India; Division of Medical Research, Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu, India; Ashok & Rita Patel Institute Of Physiotherapy, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Petlad, India; Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Management, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana; Department of Public Health, The Apollo University, Chittoor, India; Department of Epidemic Diseases Research, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Department of Midwifery, Wachemo University, Hosaena, Ethiopia; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Nigeria; Department of Microbiology, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Nigeria; Department of Regenerative Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Department of Biochemistry, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences (CIRBSc), Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; School of Chemical and Life Sciences (SCLS), Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India; College of Medicine, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; School of Medicine and Public Health, Ateneo de Manila University, Pasig City, Philippines; Inter-Agency Committee on Environmental Health, Department of Health Philippines, Manila, Philippines; Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; College of Art and Science, Ottawa University, Surprise, AZ, United States; Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; Department of Public Health, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Care in Long Term Conditions Research Division, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Grupo 15, CIBER Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; University College of Medicine & Dentistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Neurosurgery, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States; Federal Research & Clinic Center of Space Medicine and Biology of the Federal Biomedical Agency, Federal Research & Clinic Center of Space Medicine and Biology of the Federal Biomedical Agency, Moscow, Russian Federation; Faculty of Business and Law, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom; Department of Physiotherapy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Physiotherapy, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Department of Public Health, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Clinical Disciplines, Al Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Community Medicine and Global Health, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Norway; Department of Pharmacy Practice, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; School of Veterinary Medicine, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Internal Medicine, AdventHealth, Sebring, FL, United States; Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India; Department of Chemistry, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Chemistry Department, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Medicine, Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan; Department of Deakin Health Economics, Deakin University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Faculty of Health Sciences, Mountains of the Moon University, Fort Portal, Uganda; Department of Global Health, Center for Epidemic Research and Outbreak Preparedness, Kampala, Uganda; School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia; Nursing Department, Institute of Technology and Health Science RS Dr Soepraoen, Malang, Indonesia; Faculty of Health Science, Institute of Technology and Health Science RS Dr Soepraoen, Malang, Indonesia; Atchabar Scientific Research Institute, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Science, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Immunology, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran; School of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Department of Medical Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune (Deemed to be University), Pune, India; Center for Clinical Global Health Education, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Adigrat University, Adigart, Ethiopia; Ethiopia; Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy; Clinic of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, ASST Santi Paolo E Carlo, Milan, Italy; Northumbria HealthCare NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Department of Health Outcome and Policy Evaluation, Thailand National Health Foundation, Bangkok, Thailand; Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, The University of Haripur, Haripur, Pakistan; Internal Medicine Department, St. Paul's Hospital Millennium Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Public Health, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Department of Health Behavior and Society, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia; Tigray Health Research Institute, Tigray Health Research Institute, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Africa Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Maternal and Child Health Directorate, Federal Ministry of Health, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Nursing, College of Health Science, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; Department of Mathematics & Statistics, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Laboratory Sciences Department, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran; Brown School of Public Health, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; Department of Medical Microbiology, Omdurman Islamic University, Khartoum, Sudan; Advanced Medical & Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia; College of Veteranary Medicine, University of Sulaimani, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; College of Health Science, Cihan University-Sulaimaniya, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Collage of Science, Chemistry Department, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Saudi Arabia; Microbioloy Department, Alkamleen College, Khartoum, Sudan; Microbioloy Department, AL Yarmouk Collage, Khartoum -Sudan, Sudan; School of Public Health, Wolaita Sodo University, Wolaita Sodo, South Africa; Division of Health System and Public Health, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; Directorate of Quality Assurance, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; Department of Food & Health, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Forensic Science, Government Institute of Forensic Science Nagpur, Nagpur, India; Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, India; Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University Tunis el Manar, Tunis, Tunisia; Curtin School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States; Applied College, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; Islamic International Medical College, Riphah International University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Pharmacy, Yonsei University, Incheon, South Korea; Research and Scientific Division, Ministry of Health, Free Town, Sierra Leone; Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States; Department of Medical Informatics, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Department of Pathological Physiology, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; MAHER Centre for Global Health Research, Meenakshi Academy of Higher Education and Research (MAHER), Chennai, India; Division of Biological Sciences, Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology, Chennai, India; Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Banjul, Gambia; National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India; Department of Health Education, University of Ibadan, School And Community Health, Nigeria; School of Public Health, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia; Department of Hypertension, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Polish Mothers’ Memorial Hospital Research Institute, Lodz, Poland; Department of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri Lanka; Professorial Unit - Medicine, Teaching Hospital, Kandy, Sri Lanka; Department of Pharmacology, Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Medical College, Belle Rive, Mauritius; Manna Institute, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia; Department of Noncommunicable Diseases, Bangladesh University of Health Sciences, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Center for Higher Studies and Research, Bangladesh University of Professionals, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Maternal and Child Health Division (MCHD), International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Central Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal; Biochemistry Department, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan; Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; School of Pharmacy, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; Department of Public Health Education, University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development, Mampong, Ghana; Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Gorakhpur, India; Alpha Genomics Private Limited, Islamabad, Pakistan; Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia, Terengganu, Malaysia; University Institute of Food Science and Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Health Information Management, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Hyderabad, India; Department of Medical Education, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, United States; School of Public Health, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, United States; IT Department, Coforge, Georgia, GA, United States; Department of Biological Sciences & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Palakkad, Palakkad, India; Department of Human Anatomy and Histology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Social and Administrative Pharmacy, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia; Associate Membership Unit, Ethiopian Public Health Association, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; University of Rijeka, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia; Department of Dermatovenereology, University of Gondar, Gondar City, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa; Community Medicine Department, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Madurai, India; College of Health Sciences and Referral Hospital, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia; Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, Krishna Vishwa Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University), Karad, India; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of West Attica, Egaleo, Greece; BRAC James P Grant School of Public Health, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Pharmacotherapy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States; Department of Health Systems Strengthening, Global Health Advocacy Incubator, Washington, DC, United States; Centre for Policy Research and Data Analytics in Health and Environment, All India Institute for Medical Sciences, Gorakhpur, India; Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States; Department of Global Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States; Faculty of Medicine, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Sintra, Portugal; Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health (CIIS), Universidade Católica Portuguesa (Catholic University of Portugal), Lisbon, Portugal; Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia; Department of General Practice and Emergency Medicine, Karnali Academy of Health Sciences, Jumla, Nepal; Department of Anatomy, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; National Institute for Implementation Research on Non Communicable Diseases, Indian Council of Medical Research, Jodhpur, India; Department of Internal Medicine, Wayne State University, Gross Pointe Woods, MI, United States; Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India; Family Medicine Department, Texas Tech University, El Paso, TX, United States; School of Education, Sport & Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health Research, Bengal Rural Welfare Service, Kolkata, India; Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Deoghar, India; Department of Innovation UBC, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Medical Lab Technology, Chandigarh University, Mohali, India; Laboratory of Translational Medicine and Nanotherapeutics, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India; Department of Health Behaviour, Environment and Social Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sleman, Indonesia; Center of Health and Behavior and Promotion, Universitas Gadjah Mada (Gadjah Mada University), Sleman, Indonesia; Wesfarmers Centre for Vaccines and Infectious Diseases, Telethon Kids Institute, Perth, WA, Australia; Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, University of Science and Technology Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh; Department of Public Health, Daffodil International University, Savar, Bangladesh; Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; School of Allied Health Sciences, Noida International University, Greater Noida, India; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut, Malaysia; Department of Community Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Department of Pediatrics and Child Health Nursing, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ramanathapuram, India; Department of Internal Medicine, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Mangalore, India; Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Disease Surveillance Department, Ghana Health Service, Ho, Ghana; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana; Facultad De Salud (faculty of Health), Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali, Colombia; Department of Medicine, University Ferhat Abbas of Setif, Setif, Algeria; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University Hospital Saadna Abdenour, Setif, Algeria; Laboratory of Human Pathology Biology, University Mohammed V, Rabat, Morocco; Department of Earth, Environment, and Equity, Howard University, Washington, DC, United States; HCAI, Fungal, AMR, AMU, & Sepsis Division, United Kingdom Health Security Agency, London, United Kingdom; Department of Infection, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Cancer Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, United States; Department of Environmental Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Woman and Child Health and Public Health, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS (Agostino Gemelli University Polyclinic IRCCS), Rome, Italy; Global Health Research Institute, Università Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore (Catholic University of Sacred Heart), Rome, Italy; Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Ladoke Akintola University, Ogbomoso, Nigeria; School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Department of Family and Community Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia; School of Public Health Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Al Shifa School of Public Health, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Community Medicine, Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Chittoor, India; Faculty of Health Sciences Healthcare Management Department, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey; Heidelberg Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Psychological Neuroscience Laboratory, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; Department of Medical, Surgical, and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy; Public Health Unit, University Health Agency Giuliano-Isontina (ASUGI), Trieste, Italy; Department of Hematology/Oncology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States; Department of Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India; Institute for Skeletal Aging & Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University, Chuncheon, South Korea; State Disease Investigation Laboratory, Animal Resources Development Department, Agartala, India; Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, United States; Department of Nephrology and Critical Care Department, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States; Department of Community & Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India; India; Department of Public Health and Health Sciences, Tennessee State University (TSU), Nashville, TN, United States; Department of Community Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Sawangi, India; Department of Epidemiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth Houston), Houston, TX, United States; Department of Biology, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health, Indian Institute of Public Health, Hyderabad, India; Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India; National Institute of Translational Virology and AIDS Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, Pune, India; Clinical Project Management Office, National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, Shenzhen, China; Faculty of Humanities and Health Sciences, Curtin University, Miri, Malaysia; Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China; Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore; International Institute of Yoga and Naturopathy Medical Sciences, International Institute of Yoga and Naturopathy Medical Sciences, Chengalpattu, India, Tamil Nadu, Chengalpattu, India; Division of Infectious Diseases, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States; SRM School of Public Health, Sri Ramaswamy Memorial Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India; Department of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bilaspur, India; Centre for Research Impact & Outcome, Chitkara University, Rajpura, India; Department of Biosciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; College of Applied & Health Sciences, College of Applied & Health Sciences, Ibra North Sharqiyah Governorate, Oman; Department of Public Health, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Public Health Department, Asian University for Women, Chittagong, Bangladesh; School of Pharmaceutical Science, Science University of Malaysia, Gelugor, Malaysia; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Christian Medical College and Hospital (CMC), Vellore, India; Department of Health Behavior, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia; Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, South Africa; Department of Internal Medicine, Rochester General Hospital, Rochester, NY, United States; Department of Respiratory Medicine and Allergology, Nicolae Testemitanu State University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Chisinau, Moldova; Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy; Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), University of Minho, Braga, Portugal; Institute for Research and Innovation in Health (i3S), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Physiotherapy, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Faculty of Health Sciences, Autonomous University of Bucaramanga, Bucaramanga, Colombia; Department of Health, Northern Territory Government, Darwin, SA, Australia; Karnavati Scientific Research Centre, Karnavati Scientific Research Centre, Gandhinagar, India; Asrat Woldeyes Health Science Campus, Debre Berhan University, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Debre Markos University, Debre Markos, Ethiopia; School of Postgraduate Studies and Research, Amoud University, Hargiesa, Somalia; Division of Delivery Research/Implementation Research, Indian Council of Medical Research, Delhi, India; Institute for Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden; General Planning Department, Sun Group International Hospital, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Nursing Program, Vin University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Public Health, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia; University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; International Center for Materials Sciences and Technology, Western Caspian University, Baku, Azerbaijan; Jadara Research Center, Jadara University, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Pharmacology, Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Chittoor, India; Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Rajasthan, Jaipur, India; Department of Medicine, University of Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh; Moddhya and Dokkhin Bangladesh Shishu Unnoyan Prokolpo-Sagorika, BD 0504, Compassion International Bangladesh, Chittagong, Bangladesh; School of Medicine, University of Colima, Colima, Mexico; Department of Research, State Cancerology Institute of Colima, Colima, Mexico; College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Clinic for Pulmonary Diseases and Tuberculosis “Podhrastovi”, University Clinical Center in Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States; College of Health Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Public Health and Environment Research Centre (PERC), Lalitpur, Nepal; Department of Global Health Epidemiology Research Group, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Chettinad Hospital & Research Institute, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, Chennai, India; JSS Medical College, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Health Education and Research, Mysuru, India; Department of Pharmacy, United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Pharmacology Division, Center for Life Sciences Research Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India; Department of Biotechnology, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences in INDIA, Coimbatore, India; Department of Research and Development Cell, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune (Deemed to be University), Pune, India; Department of Pharmacy Practice, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Hajipur, Hajipur, India; Population Interventions Unit, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Life Science and Public Health, Università Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore (Catholic University of the Sacred Heart), Rome, Italy; Public Health Intelligence Unit, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; Department of Human Physiology, Baze University, Fct, Nigeria; Care and Health Program, Care and Health Program, Yaounde, Cameroon; Independent Consultant, Bridgewater, NJ, United States; Department of Health Policy and Management, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India; Faculty of Science and Humanities, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, India; Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rajkot, India; College of Medicine, Ajman University, Ajman, United Arab Emirates; Irfan Suat Gunsel Operational Research Institute, Near East University, Nicosia, Turkey; Higher School of Technology, Sultan Moulay Slimane University, Beni Mellal, Morocco; School of Public Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Department of Advanced Nursing, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, Indonesia; La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Biochemistry, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey; NanoBioMedicine International Research Center, Baku, Azerbaijan; Neuromusculoskeletal Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Anesthesiology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, United States; Fish Farming and Technology Institute, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh, India; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon; Department of Emergency Preparedness & Response (EPR), Africa Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Nigeria; Department of Epidemiology, Gamal Abdel Nasser University Conakry (UGANC), Conakry, Guinea; Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia; Faculty of Sciences, University Mohammed the First, Oujda, Morocco; Perelman's School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Public Health Programs Unit, Society for Disease Prevention, Inc., York, PA, United States; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria; College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX, United States; Institute of Public Health, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates; Department of Healthcare Policy and Financing, Global Health Focus, Khartoum, Sudan; National Institute of Public Health Research, Ministry of Health, Nouakchott, Mauritania; College of Public Health and Health Informatics, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Specialty Medicine, Johns Hopkins Aramco Heathcare, Alkhobar, Saudi Arabia; Department of Clinical Pathology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; Department of Animal Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; Molecular Biology Department, Sirius Training and Research Centre, Khartoum, Sudan; Molecular Biology Department, Africa City of Technology, Khartoum, Sudan; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhur, Egypt; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Suez Canal University, Port Said, Egypt; Department of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia; Department of Epartment of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Health Research and Technology Transfer Directorate, South Ethiopia Region Public Health Institute, Jinka, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia; Department of Community Health, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria; Department of Interdisciplinary Health Sciences, University of Texas at el Paso, Texas, TX, United States; Drug Delivery System Excellence Center, Prince of Songkla University Hat Yai, Hat Yai, Thailand; Australian Center for Precision Health, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Bacteriology and Virology, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Cancer Research Center, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Department of Anatomy, State University of Medical and Applied Sciences, Igbo Eno, Nigeria; Department of Anatomy, Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu Alike Ikwo, Nigeria; Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Infection Research Unit, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Environmental Health Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria; School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom; Global Health & Innovation Lab, Western University, London, ON, Canada; Department of Health and Society, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Forensic Science, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Owerri, Nigeria; Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Research Centre for Healthcare and Community, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom; Department of Oral Biology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan; of the Scientific and Technological Park, Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; Department of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Department of Surgery, Clinical and Public Health Research, MyungSung Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Respiratory Therapy Department, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia; Research Office, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; College of Medicine, AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia; Department of Radiography and Imaging Technology, Green International University, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Geography and Geoinformatics, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan; Centre for Public Health, Equity and Human Flourishing, Torrens University Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Institute of Resource Governance and Social Change, Kupang, Indonesia; Technical Institute of Suwaria, Middle Technical University, Baghdad, Iraq; Department of Social Medicine and Epidemiology, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; School of Nursing, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, Griffith University, QLD, Australia; Department of Pharmacy, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Department of Pathobiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States; Institute of Health Sciences, Wollega University, Nekemte, Ethiopia; Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia; Department of Pharmacy, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, Bule Hora University, Bule Hora, Ethiopia; Medical School, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Department of Medical Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Faculty of Rehabilitation and Allied Health Sciences, Riphah International University, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; School of Medicine, Windhoek, Namibia; Institute of Public Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin (Charité Medical University Berlin), Berlin, Germany; Hypertension and Cardiovascular Risk Research Center, Medical and Surgical Sciences Department, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Department of Medical Pharmacology, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey; Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, Padova, Italy; Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Community Medicine, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria; Department of Community Medicine, Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, Nigeria; Department of Public Health, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary; College of Medical Sciences, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria; Department of Emergency Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Madurai, India; Department of Pulmonary Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, India; Department of Pharmacology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; Department of Food Science and Technology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Health Policy and Administration, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Tuberculosis, Manhiça Health Research Center, Manhiça, Mozambique; Viral and Bacterial Infections Research Program, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Barcelona, Spain; Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, United States; Infectious Diseases Unit, University of Verona, Verona, Italy; University of Southern Queensland, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia; Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Noida, India; Public Health Department, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia; Cochlear Center for Hearing and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Philadelphia, PA, United States; PA, United States; Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia; School of Public Health, Adigrat University, Adigrat, Ethiopia; College of Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Institute of Public Health, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland; School of Medicine and Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom; Department of Laboratory Sciences, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran; Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Nursing, Middle Technical University, Baghdad, Iraq; Iraq; Department of Public Health, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medical Biochemical Analysis, Cihan University-Erbil, Erbil, Iraq; Tropical Health Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; Family and Community Medicine Department, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, United States; International University of Health and Welfare, International University of Health and Welfare, Narita, Japan; Country Office, World Health Organization (WHO), Astana, Kazakhstan; Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry (DBSC), University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman; Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Afro-Asian Institute, Lahore, Pakistan; Department of Zoology, KKS Women's College, Balasore, India; Department of Nursing, Aksum University, Aksum, Ethiopia; Internal Medicine, Infectious Disease Unit, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Internal Medicine, Yekatit 12 Hospital Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Anatomy, Cebu Institute of Medicine, Cebu City, Philippines; Department of Cardiac Surgery, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Lerner College of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; Respiratory Medicine Department, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece; Greece; University Institute of Public Health, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan; Ashok & Rita Patel Institute of Physiotherapy, Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa, India; Department of Health Systems and Policy Research, Indian Institute of Public Health, Gandhinagar, India; Department of Genetics, Sana Institute of Higher Education, Sari, Iran; Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Senior Department of Tuberculosis, The Eighth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China; Tuberculosis Biomarker Research Unit, Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología (Institute for Scientific Research and High Technology Services), City Of Knowledge, Panama; School of Medical Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India; Department of Infectious Disease, National Institute of Epidemiology, Chennai, India; Midwifery Department, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Department of Cardiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States; School of Global Health and Bioethics, Euclid University, Banjul, Gambia; Department of Microbiology, Federal University Birnin Kebbi, Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria; Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Department of Community Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Kandy, Sri Lanka; Laboratory Oncology Department, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India; Department of Nephrology, Max Super Speciality Hospital, New Delhi, India; Centre for Toxicovigilance & Drug Safety, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India; College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Toxicology, Shriram Institute for Industrial Research, Delhi, India; Department of Community and Family Medicine, Central Armed Police Forces Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS-CAPFIMS), Delhi, India; Department of Respiratory Care, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Jubail, Saudi Arabia; Faculty of Health - School of Dentistry - Oral Public Health, Univeristy of the Valley, Cali, Colombia; Doctoral Program in Biomedical Gerontology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Research Unit in Epidemiology Clinic, Mexican Institute of Social Segurity, Colima, Mexico; Kinesiology Department, Universidad Santo Tomás, Talca, Chile; College of Health Science, Dilla University, Dilla, Ethiopia; Department of Medical Microbiology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq; Department of Infectious Diseases, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan; School of Public Health, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland; Department of Radiology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Community Medicine, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India; Centre for Community Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India; Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa, Oman; School of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Jounieh, Lebanon; Applied Science Research Center, Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan; Training Center, Kurdistan Higher Council of Medical Specialties, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq; Infectious Diseases Department, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; Department of Animal Diseases, King Salman International University, Ras Sudr, Egypt; Department of Statistics and Informatics, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Erbil, Iraq; Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Department, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Pathobiology and Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States; Department of General Surgery and Urology, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Amman, Jordan; Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria; Edirne Public Health Center, Edirne Provincial Health Directorate, Edirne, Turkey; Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey; Department of Basic and Applied Sciences, A’ Sharqiyah University, Ibra, Oman; Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Respiratory Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark; Department of Epidemiology Population Biostatistics and Health Promotion, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, Indonesia; Department of Medical Imaging, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; School of Nursing and Midwivery, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia; Department of Zoology and Entomology, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tejgaon College, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Faculty Of Dentistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India; Department of Food Technology and Nutrition Science, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh; Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia; Institute of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Institute of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India; Department of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan; Department of Community Medicine, Federal University Teaching Hospital, Lafia, Nigeria; Department of Epidemiology and Community Medicine, Federal University of Lafia, Lafia, Nigeria; Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jamhuriya University of Science and Technology, Mogadishu, Somalia; School of Engineering & Technology, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Viet Nam; Nanomedicine and Nanobiology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States; Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; National Center for Biosafety and Biosecurity, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Division of Microbiology, Immunology and Biotechnology, Department of Natural Products and Alter-native Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Tabuk, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia, Tabuk, 71491, Saudi Arabia; Department of Microbiology, Taiz University, Taiz, Yemen; School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China; Department of Nursing, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand; Kasturba Medical College Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Indi
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